1.2 Types of organizations

Distinction between the private and public sectors

1.2 Business Management

Posted by ChocoMalt in 1.2 , Business Management

1.2 Types of organizations

Topic 9: Innovations and markets (HL)

9.1 Corporate Strategies

NOD:

• The strategy of a company can determine the success of a company.
• Appropriate strategies can be selected from the evaluation of products, services and systems to allow the company to achieve its aims and objectives.

PIONEERING STRATEGY AND IMITATIVE STRATEGY
Comparison of success between pioneering and imitative strategies.

Pioneering is to enter the market with a new innovation and be the first to do so.
Imitative is to develop products that resemble already existing products.

[Table for positives and negatives for each strategy.]



[Example company.]



MARKET DEVELOPMENT
Developing current products which could open new markets for the product. This allows companies to target customers outside of their current target market by developing the product to attract these customers.
[Example]

MARKET PENETRATION
Creating new products, modifying of updating products to target the existing customers and current target market in order to gain a larger presence in that market and increase sales or finding new customers for an existing product.

This can be done in a variety of different ways:

• Adding new features to current products.
• Updating and enhancing the product.
• Increasing the product range by providing more options or various designs to choose from.
• Releasing different types of the same general product (different flavoured soda as different products under the same company).

Strategies the company can use:

• Product promotion to release information about the product, brand or company to make it desirable within the targeted market.

[Above the line and below the line --> table]

[Example company/product]

PRODUCT DIVERSIFICATION
Development of both the company and the product, creating new products to target new markets. [Developing new products for new markets.]

HYBRID APPROACHES
Using both pioneering and imitative strategies. This may be done in order to:

• increase and maximize sales and profit.
• reduces risks of pioneering strategy.
• [provide for quick turn around]
• [reduces R&D spending]

Examples of a company and its products that are a result of a hybrid approach.


CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
How corporate social responsibility may be a particular goal of a company whereby the aim is to benefit and minimize the disadvantages.
The responsibility a company has to society in regulating its social, economical and environmental impacts. The company must asses the impacts it has in these three areas to benefit and minimize the disadvantages.

Examples of evidence of effective corporate social responsibility for a major multinational company.
[EXAMPLE]

DT Topic 9

Posted by Anonymous in DT , Topic 9

Topic 9: Innovations and markets (HL)

Topic 3: Modelling

3.1 Conceptual Modelling

NOD

ROLE OF CONCEPTUAL MODELLING
How conceptual models are used to communicate with yourself and others and how they vary in relation to the context.
The purpose of conceptual modelling is to outline the principles, processes and basic functions of a design. It originates from ideas in the designer's mind and is used to illustrate them to others, helping them to understand relationships, data, processes and more.

It is a representation of reality that can be made with various techniques for all kinds of situations and purposes.

CONCEPTUAL MODELLING TOOLS
How the designer visualizes concepts, design thinking and learning.

Flow charts

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CONCEPTUAL MODELLING
Advantages -

• Puts abstract ideas that originate from the mind into a visible and understandable form.
• Supports project planning.
• Explains features in data sets.

Disadvantages -

• Assumptions are made that in reality may not work.

3.2 Graphical Models

NOD





2D AND 3D GRAPHICAL MODELS
How graphical models are used to communicate with yourself and others and how the choice of graphical models vary in relation to the context.

Graphical models are used to portray how a concept will look in terms of size and aesthetical form. Freehand drawings are used in the early stages and developed to explore dimensions and form (3D - isometric drawings) and construction details and sizes (2D - orthographic drawings).


Advantages -

• Quick visual images to help develop ideas.
• Can communicate ideas to consumers/clients/others.
• Idea behind image can be explained.
• Encourages creativity.

 
Disadvantages -

• Can not be easily manipulated.
• Interpretation of the model is varied.
• Technical drawings may be difficult to understand.

PERSPECTIVE, PROJECTION AND SCALE DRAWINGS
Perspective - A 3D drawing that includes vanishing points.

• Allows us to consider spatial arrangements such as foreshortening.
• Visually accurate representation that can illustrate design to non-technical people.

Projection and scale drawings - Orthographic drawings which allows the design to be viewed from different angles.

• Allows us to display construction details and sizes which can be scaled up or down as needed.

SKETCHING VERSUS FORMAL DRAWING TECHNIQUES
Sketching

• Allows ideas to be visually communicated easily without technical aids.
• Used early in the design process to document ideas.
• Allows the designer to communicate ideas and consider the implications for further development.

Formal drawing techniques - Use of drawing instruments and technical aids to enable a higher degree of accuracy shown in drawings.

Advantages -

• Details such as sizes and dimensions can be shown.
• Drawing can be used to manufacture the product.
• Allows more accuracy to be shown.
• Different views of the object can be seen.

Disadvantages -

• Drawing is time consuming.
• May require higher level of skill compared to free-hand.
• Drawing instruments and technical aid equipment is needed.

PART AND ASSEMBLY DRAWING
To allow further details and ideas to be explained, designers may draw an assembly or part drawing.

Advantages -

• Illustrates how the product is assembled.
• Displays how the product works.

Disadvantages -

• Drawing is time consuming.
• May require higher level of skill compared to free-hand.
• Expensive.

3.3 Physical Modelling

NOD


Applications of physical models and the use of instrumented models to measure product performance level and facilitate continuous formative evaluation and testing.



SCALE MODELS
Physical representation of an object with all aspects accurately maintained in the model.

• Material properties - Model's interaction with outside world is related to the original object's interaction.

AESTHETIC MODELS
Models that look realistic similar to the product it represents.
They are made to look and feel like the final product and is used for various purposes such as ergonomic testing and evaluation of aesthetic appeal.

• Allows designer to visualize the design.
• Non-working (for show) but shows how the object will look aesthetically.
• Expensive to produce.

MOCK-UPS
Used for teaching, demonstration, design evaluation and promotion.
Can be a full-sized or scaled model of an object.



PROTOTYPES
Models intended to be used to test concepts and processes to allow the designer to enhance its function.
Allows designers to discover specifications for real and working systems rather than theoretical ones.

• Developed to work from two perspectives: the designer who learns by developing the product and the user who can provide the designer with feedback and user interaction.
• Can be produced at different fidelities: low (conceptual representation), medium (represents various aspects of ideas), high (mock-up, close to final product). This depends on the context in which it will be used.

INSTRUMENTED MODELS
Models that consider the dimensions, weight proportions and articulation of an object and used to made to test the dynamic behaviour of the product such as velocity, force, bending, folding or torque.
Examples include crash testing cars or testing aircraft testing in wind tunnels.

• Includes the ability to take measurements and provide accurate quantitative feedback which can be analysed later on.
• Can be used to investigate product's reaction to natural surroundings.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PHYSICAL MODELLING
Advantages -

• Shape, proportion and aesthetics can be easily communicated to the user (car shows).
• Provides a realistic visual image.
• Allows design to be understood by non-technical audience.
• Allows design to be communicated to a wide range of people.
• Allows for user trials and testing ergonomics.
• Consideration of environment can be done and improved by testing.

Disadvantages -

•  Production is time consuming.
• High level of skill required to produce models.
• Resources are needed to produce models such as machinery, raw materials and equipment.
• Bad on the environment as producing models requires energy and raw materials plus having to be disposed of later on.
• Expensive to product high-quality models.
• Models are not adjustable or flexible after produced.
• Scaling errors could be occur resulting in inaccurate testing.

3.4 Computer-aided Design (CAD)

NOD

TYPES OF CAD SOFTWARE
CAD software comes in many different:

• Types
• Prices
• Features
• Quality

It is used for conceptual design to product drawings in 2D or 3D that allows the layout and dimensions of designs to be illustrated. Can be used to aid development of designs in various markets such as fashion, construction, automotive or architectural markets.

SURFACE AND SOLID MODELS
Surface modelling - Modelling the exterior of the object as a thin skin created using lofts and curves.

Solid modelling - Modelling the object with its geometric mass by creating a solid base and then adding and taking away from the base to include features such as extrude, revolves, chamfers, etc.

DATA MODELLING INCLUDING STATISTICAL MODELLING
How data models structure data through database models.

VIRTUAL PROTOTYPING
VP is modelling a system to simulate and visualize how it operates under real-world conditions and is usually done using a software. Designers can build and test virtual prototypes (parts or entire structure) on a computer and analyze its behavior before actually manufacturing it.

This may reduce the time and cost of development as well as improving the quality of the designs.

BOTTOM-UP AND TOP-DOWN MODELLING
Top-down modelling - start with the design criteria and then create components that meet the specific criteria. Parts added are adjusted to fit with the first part.

Bottom up modelling - the parts are drawn individually and then assembled together in the order they would be assembled in manufacturing. The parts may sometimes not fit together and components will have to be redrawn.

DIGITAL HUMANS
How they can be used to simulate design scenarios and context.
Computer simulations of the human body's biological and mechanical aspects that allow us to develop products to suit human requirements more accurately and efficiently.

• Motion capture - recording movements using sensors and markers allowing us to develop a digital representation of the movement, cutting down on animation.
• Haptic technology - simulation of the sense of touch using forces equivalent to those in the real world allowing the user to feel and touch virtual objects and model the surface properties of an object.
• Virtual reality (VR) - computer generated 3D environment that the user can interact with through wearable technology.
• Animation - simulation of various scenarios and can monitor the safety of production by modelling the process using animation.

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS (FEA)
Comparison of FEA with testing physical models
Use of FEA systems when designing and developing products.
Modelling the material or design under stress, strain or heat using 3D computer software that can calculate the stress exerted on specific parts.

It helps to predict the life of the material of product where cracks or damages are likely to occur. It can help to identify failures due to unknown stress factors in the material and is more efficient and less costly than manufacturing and testing each sample.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER-AIDED MODELLING
Advantages - 

• Complicated drawings can be saved and modified efficiently.
• Data is easily shared.
• Can be used with CAM and CNC machines.

Disadvantages -

• Software and equipment is expensive.
• Training is needed to acquire skills to operate and as technology develops, skills need to be updated.
• May not be realistic as a physical model.

3.5 Rapid Prototyping

NOD

Different types of 3D printing techniques.
STEREOLITHOGRAPHY
Using liquid plastic which is cured or hardened to form a solid object.

LAMINATED OBJECT MANUFACTURING (LOM)
Sheets of paper, plastic or metal laminates are glued together using a heat roller and then cut into shapes using a knife or a laser cutter.

FUSED DEPOSITION MODELLING (FDM)
Using thermoplastics that are heated to its melting point and layered to create a 3D object. (3D printers)

SELECTIVE LASER SINTERING (SLS)
Using a a laser to trace the object onto a thin layer of powder (plastic), heating it up so the particles fuse together to form a solid object. This is done in layers.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF RAPID PROTOTYPING TECHNIQUES
Advantages -

Disadvantages -

DT Topic 3

Posted by Anonymous in DT , Topic 3

Topic 3: Modelling

Topic 9: PLANT BIOLOGY (HL)

9.1 Transport in the xylem of plants

Transpiration
Transpiration is the inevitable consequence of gas exchange in the leaf.

Modelling water transport 
Models of water transport in xylem using simple apparatus including blotting or filter paper, porous pots and capillary tubing.

Using a potometer (PRACTICAL)
Measurement of transpiration rates using potometers.

Effect of humidity on transpiration
Design of an experiment to test hypotheses about the effect of temperature or humidity on transpiration rates.

Xylem structure helps withstand low pressure
The cohesive property of water and the structure of the xylem vessels allow transport under tension.

Data-based questions: The Renner experiment

Tension in leaf cell walls maintain the transpiration stream
The adhesive property of water and evaporation generate tension forces in leaf cell walls.

Active transport of minerals in the roots
Active uptake of mineral ions in the roots causes absorption of water by osmosis.

Replacing losses from transpiration
Plants transport water from roots to leaves to replace losses from transpiration.

Adaptions for water conservation
Adaption of plants in deserts and in saline soils for water conservation.

Drawing xylem vessels
Drawing the structure of primary xylem vessels in sections of stems based on microscope images.

Nature of science
Use models as representations of the real world: water transport mechanisms in the xylem can be modeled using apparatus and materials that will show similarities in structure to plant tissue.

9.2 - Transport in the phloem of plants

Translocation occurs from source to sink
Plants transport organic compounds from sources to sinks.

The transport of organic solutes in plants (sap) is known as translocation.
sources - where sap is made, stored or absorbed.
sinks - where sap is used or stored.
[structure of phloem]

Phloem loading
Active transport is used to load organic compounds into phloem sieve tubes at the source.
Sucrose is not available for plants to metabolize during respiration and is therefore used to transport carbohydrates as it will not metabolize. This makes sucrose the most prevalent solute in sap that is transported in the phloem.

[image of phloem loading]
Pressure and water potential differences play a role in translocation

Data-based questions: Explaining water movement

Phloem sieve tubes
Experiment using aphid stylets

Data-based questions

Radioisotopes as important tools in studying translocation

Data-based questions: Radioactive labelling [1]

Biology Topic 9

Posted by Anonymous in Biology , Topic 9

Topic 9: PLANT BIOLOGY (HL)

Topic 2 - Section C

Innovation - the generation of new or improved ideas due to various influences.
Culture - the values and beliefs of a group of people in society or in a community.
Ethics - the consideration of what is morally acceptable and unacceptable.
Globalization - the use of international factors that influence a business allowing it to grow or expand into other countries.
Change - the development and growth of an organization to adapt to its surroundings and improve.
Strategy - planned methods which are implemented by a business in the long-term to accomplish various goals such as expansion or growth.

How innovation, ethical considerations and cultural differences may influence human resource practices and strategies in an organization.

The desire innovation determines the nature of workforce planning. Increase the ability for workers to come up with innovative ideas.
e.g., arrangement of small teams with a supervisor, allows employees to share ideas and pursue interests and come up with new and innovation creations.

Ethics involves things such as safety of workers and health of workers which would mean that the company will have to consider this and implement precautions to ensure that employees are safe at work.
e.g., Google has food easily accessible, pods for employees to sleep in and healthy food which ensures that employees have a balanced diet.


Cultural differences of multi-cultural employees could determine the power distances of employees in an organization and also determines corporate culture.


How cultural differences and innovation in communication technologies may impact on communication in an organization.

Culture of employees or even the corporate culture determines the method of communication or the way or manner in which employees communication (preference for informal or formal communication).
e.g,. Google employees could prefer to use Gmail or various cultures may prefer chatting apps.

Innovation can improve communication technologies and methods and provides new methods of recording communication. Innovation makes communication more efficient. How data is stored.
e.g., Google drive allows teams or groups to collaborate and communicate. 

How ethical considerations and cultural differences may influence leadership and management styles in an organization
Ethically -> consideration of employee's humans rights and public image of company -> they have to behave ethically and this influences the leadership or management style they choose to utilize.

Different cultures prefer different leadership styles. Multinational company with workers of different nationalities will be affected because different cultures have different styles in which they work and problems could occur if a company does not consider that as it means the an employee does not suit that type of management style, decreasing productivity.

How financial and non-financial rewards may affect job satisfaction, motivation and productivity in different cultures
Different people are motivated by different things - some extrinsic and some intrinsic. So different people will have different levels of job satisfaction and productivity as different cultures varies.

How individuals influence organizational culture and how organizational culture influences individuals.
People bring their own culture and the culture of employees from the company's culture.

How innovation, ethical considerations and cultural differences may influence employer– employee relations in an organization.
Differences in views which lead to disagreement will impact the relationship. Tech advances make it easier for businesses to operate without needing labor.

Innovation - 

• new ideas may cause conflict
• innovation causes change to organizational structures
• change causes conflict or can improve relationships (improved communication)
• innovation can bring stress
• innovation comes from people

Ethics -

• good ethics can improve relationship - if employees believe that employers are behaving ethically, then their relationship is not compromised.
• good ethics by employers makes employees feel better about their job -> intrinsic reward.
• code of ethics: clear ethical stance reduces conflcit.

Culture - 

• power distances which are different for each culture can cause conflict.
• differing ethical perspectives causes conflict.
• could benefit in generating new ideas.
• clashes between departments with different culture.
• expectations of employer and employee.
• culture of organization may not suit workers.
• culture needs to be considered to avoid conflict.
• new employees may have difficulty to corporate culture.

Business Management Topic 2

Posted by Anonymous in Business Management , Topic 2

Topic 2 - Section C

2.5 Organizational (Corporate) Culture [HL]

ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE (AO1)
The values and beliefs of the people within an organization that determine the way they interact with each other an external stakeholders.

ELEMENTS OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE (AO2)

• Power distance
• Individualism vs collectivism
• Masculinity vs femininity
• Uncertainty avoidance
• Long-term vs short-term

TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE - CHARLES HANDY (AO2)

• Power culture - power is concentrated among few in an autocratic leadership organization. Results are judged rather than process.
• Person culture - individuals are given the ability to freely express themselves and make decisions in a creative type of culture.
• Role culture - each staff member has a specific role and title which is clearly identified, common in government and public sector organizations. Risk-taking is frowned upon.
• Task culture - groups are formed and is based on cooperation and teamwork to complete projects.
• Entrepreneurial culture - encourages employees to become innovative and take risks with new ideas and business ventures.

CULTURE CLASHES

The needs of the organization may hinder the growth of an organization due to corporate culture clashing with it.

Changing culture

• Concentrate on positive aspects of change
• Obtain full commitment from all levels of business – managers to lower levels.
• Establish and communicate new objectives
• Encourage bottom-up participation: get the lower level workers involved in implementing the change
• New reward systems with staffs trained.
• Change the staff reward system.

Impact of Culture

• Values of business – what is acceptable and not.
• How employees and managers treat each other
• Distinctive cultures can support brands
• Long-term business success is linked to a positive organizational culture.

All departments in a business may have different culture. This could be different jargon, behavior patterns, values or beliefs

There is no right or wrong culture for a business in terms of leadership styles.

BPS is like role culture

Each member of staff has a clear job and role.

Effects

·         Structure

·         Motivation

·         Selection and training

These factors will also affect corporate culture.

Change

Cultures will change over time

·         Markets become more global and competitive

·         New workers with new ideas and ways of doing things

·         Legal (law) and social changes

·         Merges and takeover

2.5 Business Management Topic 2

Posted by Anonymous in 2.5 , Business Management , Topic 2

2.5 Organizational (Corporate) Culture [HL]

Topic 8: Sustainability (HL)

DT Topic 8

Posted by Anonymous in DT , Topic 8

Topic 8: Sustainability (HL)

Biology

Core
Topic 1 -
Topic 2: MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Higher-Level Only
Topic 9: PLANT BIOLOGY (HL)

Biology Topic 1 Topic 10 Topic 11 Topic 2 Topic 3 Topic 4 Topic 5 Topic 6 Topic 7 Topic 8 Topic 9

Posted by ChocoMalt in Biology , Topic 1 , Topic 10 , Topic 11 , Topic 2 , Topic 3 , Topic 4 , Topic 5 , Topic 6 , Topic 7 , Topic 8 , Topic 9

Biology

Topic 2: Molecular Biology

2.1 Molecules to metabolism
Living processes involve multiple chemical substances. These are based upon carbon compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

Application: Urea is produced naturally by living organisms as excrement but it can also be artificially synthesized.

NOS: 

• People believed that organic compounds can only be made using a 'vital principle' - this was vitalism.

• This theory was falsified after it was discovered that urea could be artificially synthesized.

• This falsification does not cause all scientists to abandon the theory, however, it does create controversies.

Carbon can form four bonds allowing a wide range of different molecules to be made. They form covalent bonds with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and phosphorus.

Living organisms are based upon carbon compounds such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids which are made up of the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O) and nitrogen (N).

Metabolism is the process of chemical reactions, that are catalyzed by enzymes, occurring in a cell or various living organisms. It can be separated into two types:

Anabolism - An endothermic reaction that forms larger molecules from smaller molecules. This processes requires energy (ATP). Examples are condensation reactions, photosynthesis, DNA synthesis and synthesis of complex carbohydrates and polypeptides.

Catabolism - An exothermic reaction breaking down larger molecules into smaller molecules. This process releases energy. Examples are hydrolysis, cellular respiration, digestion.

(REMEMBER -> EXO breaks CATS -> Catabolism is exothermic and breaks down larger into smaller)

2.2 Water

2.3 Carbohydrates and lipids

2.4 Proteins

2.5 Enzymes

Posted by ChocoMalt in

Topic 2: Molecular Biology

Notes List

BIOLOGY

BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

DESIGN & TECHNOLOGY

PSYCHOLOGY

Biology Business Management DT

Posted by ChocoMalt in Biology , Business Management , DT

Notes List